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WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_main_nav_home_links' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_main_nav_home_links', 'Main Navigation Home Links', 'Display home link in main navigation', 'radio', 'Yes,No')
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WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_notification_type' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_notification_type', 'Email Notifications Type', 'select Email Notifications options', 'radio', 'PHP Mail, WP SMTP Mail')
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WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_listing_category' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_listing_category', 'Listing Post Category', 'Display post category in listing pages', 'select', 'Yes,No')
WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_listing_comment' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_listing_comment', 'Listing Post Comment', 'Display post comment in listing pages', 'select', 'Yes,No')
WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_listing_author' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_listing_author', 'Listing Post Author', 'Display post author in listing pages', 'select', 'Yes,No')
WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_details_date' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_details_date', 'Detail Post Date', 'Display post date in detail page', 'select', 'Yes,No')
WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_details_tags' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_details_tags', 'Detail Post Tags', 'Display post tags in detail pages', 'select', 'Yes,No')
WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_details_category' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_details_category', 'Detail Post Category', 'Display post category in detail pages', 'select', 'Yes,No')
WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_details_comment' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_details_comment', 'Detail Post Comment', 'Display post comment in detail pages', 'select', 'Yes,No')
WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_details_author' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_details_author', 'Detail Post Author', 'Display post author in detail pages', 'select', 'Yes,No')
WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_pagination' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_pagination', 'Pagination', '', 'radio', 'Default + WP Page-Navi support, AJAX-fetching posts')
WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_common_settings' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_common_settings', 'Style & Color Settings', '', 'heading', '')
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WordPress database error: [Duplicate entry 'ptthemes_body_background_color' for key 'item_id']INSERT INTO `wp_option_tree` (`item_id`, `item_title`, `item_desc`, `item_type`, `item_options`) VALUES ('ptthemes_body_background_color', 'Body Background Color', 'Choose your site background color', 'colorpicker', '')
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Despite the obstacles that would be confronted on the path to the unification of the member countries of the European continent, Churchill’s vision was appealing because of the possibilities that it suggested. Emerging from deep and devastating involvement in World War I and World War II, Churchill reflected upon the lessons of war, and proposed that a unified Europe would have a far greater chance for effective military operations than individual countries in an “to each his own” strategy (Ellwood, 1992). In fact, the current state of European unity can be directly related to many of the initial ideas and efforts of Winston Churchill and his insights regarding the need for the formation of such a unified Europe are among the most important ideas when reflecting on the course of events leading to the eventual European Union.
In addition to the benefits of unification during times of conflict, Churchill suggested that European unity would bring countless advantages during times of peace and stability, too (Ellwood, 1992). In particular, Churchill envisioned the possibilities of economic advancement for the entire continent, and even the world, that he believed would result from unification (Ellwood, 1992). It was this idea, perhaps more than any of the other arguments proposed to support unification, that piqued the interest of Britain’s neighbors in the consideration of unification, and which would also ultimately compel those countries that would become European Union members to set aside other preoccupations and concerns in order to enjoy economic stability and improvement. It is no coincidence that the idea of European unification gained both adherents and momentum following the termination of the second World War.
Europe was devastated by the Second World war, and it seemed fairly obvious to most countries that their prospects of repairing the damages and reconstituting their losses would require more labor, more energy, and, of course, more money, than any one country could muster on its own. Churchill’s “grandiloquent call for European unity” was even supported by the United States, which had its own vested interests in a unified Europe (Ellwood, 1992, p. 57). First, a self-sufficient Europe would relieve the United States of any responsibility to aid or otherwise bail out European countries during the post-war recovery era as the war drained so many resources in a relatively short amount of time. Second, after the war, a recovered and economically prosperous European continent that was unified could represent a political, military, and economic alliance with the United States that would be formidable to the rest of the world. Third, such an alliance would have significant positive economic outcomes, as trade barriers would be either eliminated or tempered, and fair and favorable trade, industry, and economic accords would be negotiated and honored (Ellwood, 1992).
]]>Despite Gray’s somewhat romanticized understanding of life in America before massive-scale industrialization, the fact remains that families and for that matter, standard gender, family, and rules for children and their place within the family structure were far more cohesive as they not only relied on each other for economic and social support, but on their communities as well. With new employment opportunities opening up for women, men and children in New England and America, families were now more free to split apart, move away, or engage in work that their gender or age might not have otherwise allowed. In addition to leading to families now having the opportunity to leave home to seek employment, the coming of the Industrial Revolution to New England sparked many changes involving the role and function of having children came about, as did other paradigm shifts in the way gender roles were perceived and even solidified.
Perhaps one of the greatest general statements to be made about the changes that resulted from the Industrial Revolution in New England is that families were no longer, if even by proxy, required to remain tight-knit and solely reliant on another. Before this time children worked in fields, women, as their gender roles demanded in this pre- Industrial Revolution society and family structure in New England took care of the home and men worked in the fields. “The industrial revolution spawned great changes in family structure. Industrialization and urbanization prompted a marked change in life and working styles. Many people, especially the young, left the farms to work in factories; this process led to the dissolution of many extended families” (Finneran 1994: 46). With the shift away from the traditional modes of cottage industry in New England before the Industrial Revoltion or highly localized familial production came a related shift of family values. Instead of being tied to the home because one was needed to assist with farm or family business tasks, young people were now more free to explore their own paths. Women, instead of being relegated domestic tasks were now granted an opportunity to earn an income, even if it was significantly less than that earned by male counterparts. Entire communities, comprised of family units and networks, were split and the traditional bonds of inter-family support that arose out of necessity, particularly because of farm-related and family business tasks, was now quite as essential. In sum, the arrival of the Industrial Revolution in New England, despite some of its drawbacks, brought with it opportunity and the potential to move away from traditional family networks.
The potential offered for all members of a New England family during the Industrial Revolution in America, for men, women, and even children, was not the only important paradigm shift that occurred. For one thing, the revolution changed the way families viewed themselves and new changes occurred in terms of both gender and generational roles. Before the arrival of industry and the possibility for work outside the home and family, most people “may have had life plans, they did not have careers. Fundamental changes in the nature of work as well as gender and work accompanied the Industrial Revolution. Moving from self- and family employment to a paid labor force led to the construction of career trajectories based on the (male) breadwinner model” (Hertz 2001: 111). What this suggests is that because of a more specialized nature of the work, particularly as the Industrial Revolution moved forward and more detailed skills were required that entailed training or certain talents, the concept of the “career” emerged.
]]>This analysis and more general summary of “Essays: Moral, Political, and Literary” by Hume will attempt to define David Hume’s ideas both within his own time period and far into the future as it is inevitable for a modern reader not the see connections between his ideas and counteract them with Marx as well as others. In one of Hume’s political essays contained within “Essays: Moral, Political, and Literary” called, “Of Commerce” his views about politics and economy overlap as he describe the ideal conditions of the state by comparing this ideal with the days of ancient Sparta and Rome.
In general, his thesis in this essay is that a country’s peace as well as its ability to defend itself is only possible through industry. During times of peace, the workers who normal labor in agriculture would have time to indulge in luxury and become well-versed in the arts and fine culture. However, if the peace was shattered, these same laborers would comprise the military. He goes on to discuss these ideas as they relate to issues of foreign trade and assumes that vital trade across borders will not only allow for better culture and luxuries (to be employed during the time of peace) but foreign trade would have the added benefit of increasing the possibility for industry (which is obviously not being used here in the 19th-century sense of factories and the like) and thus this would also strengthen the military by adding more members. Through his careful analysis of agricultural labor, culture, military pursuits, and economics, Hume is constructing an interesting paradigm for this imagined society.
Before beginning an in-depth discussion about the essay entitled, “On Commerce,” it is useful to look at the way Hume was both incredibly forward-thinking about the economic future of industrial society before looking at the ways in which some of his theories may be flawed, especially for practical 21st century purposes. For instance, Hume had a thorough vision of the way an economic system should function, especially when it comes to internal finances. In his essay that follows his discussion “Of Commerce” entitled, “Of Money” he suggests that a country’s wealth was not how much money it had accumulated but rather its potential—its possible wellspring of commodities as well as “superfluous hands” to serve as labor.
While this is a simple enough concept, it should be remembered that he is not arguing that money is not important, but rather that it remains in a state of flux and the government should be responsible for monitoring this. He suggests that the economy and labor are only in danger when the prices are raised and industries at home cannot keep pace with less expensive products and labor. As David Hume puts it in one of the important quotes from “Essays: Moral, Political, and Literary” , “manufacturers gradually shift their places, leaving those countries and provinces which they have already enriched, and flying to others, whither they are allured by the cheapness of provisions and labor; till they enriched these also, and again banished by the same causes” (II.ii.4). In other words, this would be a vicious cycle, which should sound very familiar to us the 21st century with all of the debates about corporate outsourcing. In some ways, Hume foresaw this danger and in order to prevent it from happening he eschewed the idea of credit since it would give countries access to more money, thus they could begin to increase their prices and start the cycle.
The above segment has set forth at least some idea of the cause and effect processes of Hume’s political and economic thought. Although the essay “Of Money” follows “Of Commerce” it was useful as a foregrounding to the ensuing debate as it shows both the progressive and now, the conservative sides of the thinker. In “Of Commerce,” Hume begins his essay with the limiting notion that all men are comprised of two distinct classes—those who are “shallow thinkers who fall short of the truth; and that of abstruse thinkers, who go beyond it” (II.i.1). While this opening to the essay seems to have little basis in the coming content on economy, labor, and the military, after one finishes the essay it is clear why he set forth such a distinction among the classes. It is clear that he believes that are a large number of agricultural workers and these people obviously do not fit into the category of the great thinkers—they are merely the instruments of the great thinkers, the men that will enact “higher plans” such as leaving off to their duties to go to fight for the country, for instance.
While there are some enlightened aspects to this essay, it is not entirely clear what his statement is on class and one cannot help but the impression that he is an essentialist and believes in the idea that the educated class should form a ruling elite. Without delving into this subject too much, it is important to take note of how the essay begins by setting two classes apart from one another on the basis of ability. What this discussion ultimately leads up to is a comment about politics in all of its spheres—locally, internationally, and economically. He uses his foregrounding to state to cryptically conclude that, “it is the chief business of politicians; especially in the domestic government of the state, where the public good, which is, or ought to be their object, depends on the concurrence of a multitude of causes, not, as in foreign politics, on accidents and chances, and the caprices of a few persons” (I.i.2). In other words, it should be this class of thinkers that makes a whole sound decision for the good of the people who do not posses their abilities, to determine what the best course if for everyone.
]]>For the most part, according to the editor’s introduction essay to the translation of Das Kapital, much of Marx’s observations of the thirty-year period were in England, which were at once the center of the industrial revolution (with all of its glory) as well as the epicenter of the urban degradation caused by rapid and massive industrialization. While these theories about the nature of the worker, the work day, the capitalist, and economies in general were influential after their first publication, the same ideas still persist in general conversations about our modern economy—especially in terms of capitalism. In order to present the most succinct overview, analysis, and interpretation of Das Kapital ,it seems necessary to chronologically go through Das Kapital for this essay and examine some key points and themes, examine them within Marx’s context, and finally present them as templates for looking at modern capitalism society, industry, and economy.
Without any fanfare, Marx begins the first chapter of Das Kapital with a statement concerning commodities. He defines a commodity as “an object outside us, a thing that by its properties satisfies human wants of sort or another” (125). It is interesting that Marx begins the text with a discussion and definition of a commodity and after several successive chapters, it is clear to see that the commodity is one of the main driving forces behind capitalism. The commodity itself, however, is only valued according to demand or other more ethereal conditions and thus it is a perfect item for the capitalist as it presents no fixed “price” in itself, but its value is rather determined by desire and the potential for profit. To backtrack for a moment, however, a more concise definition of commodity is contained within the idea of “use value.”
This refers to a commodity’s value in how it will be used and how it is desired but this value, according to Marx, has little to do with the actual labor that went into the production of the item. Again, while it is not immediately clear at this early point in the text, the use value versus the idea of labor are important issues because there is more distinction between the two than one might initially think. For instance, something might have a very high use-value and be greatly desired. This desire leads the capitalist to make it expensive and the laborer who made the desired commodity is not paid what the desired commodity is worth, but rather is paid living wages while the surplus profits go directly to the capitalist since he owns the means of production. While that was a very brief, concise, but altogether limited description of the process behind commodities and use value, it is useful background information to frame the discussion as this analysis continues.
After this introduction to commodities and use values in Das Kapital , the idea of exchange value becomes of equal importance. As Marx puts it in one of the important quotations from “Das Kapital”, “As use values, commodities are, above all, of different qualities, but as exchange values they are merely different quantities, and consequently do not contain an atom of use value” (127). In other words, it is the proportion by which use values of one kind exchange for use values of another kind. This is a vital and fluctuating relationship and has less to do with the commodity than it might initially seem. For example, to put this into a modern context, let us assume that an iPod and a particular brand of cell phone equal x. In this case let’s make “x” stand for an inexpensive computer. In short, both the iPod and the cell phone must come out to be equivalent to another item. While this may be a confusing analogy, it is important to remember that the common item cannot be part of the initial commodity but rather must be subtracted from its use-value.
Once those use values are taken care of, the only commodity left is the work that went into the production of the item. In short, the common element in a commodity’s exchange-value is simply the “value” of it. This means that it all comes down to labor. This is a common tactic Marx employs, at first there a number of daunting methods for scientifically extracting a conception of value but in the end, it all boils down to questions about work and laborer. What has not yet been mentioned, however, is that labor is not an issue when it comes to the natural resources that went into the final commodity since they did not require labor.
Marx makes a strange shift in tone at the beginning of Chapter 2 of Das Kapital that should be noted and analyzed. He states, “persons exist for one another merely as representatives of, and, therefore, as owners of, commodities. In the course of our investigation we shall find, in general, that the characters who appear on the economic stage are but the personifications of the economic relationships that exist between them” (178). This is slightly disconcerting because this is one of the few moments in Das Kapital when Marx seems to be offering an explicit social as well as economic critique about the nature of capitalist interactions. What he is suggesting, in essence, is akin to saying that this system of capital and commodities has reduced everyone to acting based on economic decisions. There is not a hint of emotion, ethics, or other moral guidance at play here. Instead, human interactions are thus reduced to exchange and more importantly, capital itself. In the same section of Das Kapital he goes on to remark upon the commodity that, “the bodily form of this commodity becomes the form of the socially recognized universal equivalent.
To be the universal equivalent, becomes, by this social process, the specific function of the commodity thus excluded by the rest. Thus it becomes—money” (180). Although in this latter section essay from Das Kapital presented here it is less clear, this is an indeed a moral judgment Marx is passing along about the nature of capitalism. He does not suggest at any other point throughout the text where capitalism and the ideological basis for it comes from, nor does he explore the ethics or morals to an great degree (at least overtly) but this is one clear case in which he is examining the way society is changed as a result of capital and commodities. We are no longer simply working together to form a society, but we are all individuals with varying amounts of capital, thus we are reduced to having human interactions that are limited and impersonal as we are all “characters” and as such we appear only as the economic relationships that define us. While some might argue that this is an overly literal way of reading the beginning of Chapter 2 of Das Kapital , it is important because it lets the reader into the morality as well as the scientific deconstruction of capitalism.
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George Bernard Shaw wrote Arms and the Man in 1893 during the Victorian era when most plays were lighter dramas or comedies in the vein of The Importance of Being Earnest, which was a play about manners and other Victorian conventions. Still, in many ways, Arms and the Man, despite some of its themes, is a perfect example of Victorian literature. The play opened to the British public in 1894 to mixed reviews and was one of the plays included in the Plays Pleasant Volume which included a few of Shaw’s other, less popular works including “You Never Can Tell.” What is most interesting about Arms and the Man is that, although it is a comedy, it deals with several political and social themes covertly. Ideas such as the idealism behind war and the romanticism of love are attacked through satire and even more importantly, issues of class are brought to the forefront. Shaw was an avid socialist and had a number of beliefs about class that are appropriate to the historical situation in Europe. At the time the play was performed, Britain was experiencing a number of significant social and political changes as issues of class were coming to the forefront of national debates.
The idea of class struggle is at the heart of “Arms and the Man” by George Bernard Shaw but instead of making the reader or viewer keenly aware of them, he slips in a number of thought-provoking lines and makes one think about these issues after the laughter has faded. Unlike other plays of the time,Arms and the Man did not seek to merely entertain an audience with polite humor. Instead, it sought to expose some of the most pressing issues of the day in a palatable format—the comedy. This is a trademark feature of Shaw’s plays and he once wrote, “What is the use of writing plays, what is the use of writing anything, if there is not a will which finally moulds chaos itself into a race of gods” (Peters 109). In other words, George Bernard Shaw thought that there was no sense in writing something for mere entertainment, what he wrote had to serve a higher purpose and encourage people to think rather to sit and be content to be entertained.
At the time George Bernard Shaw wrote the Arms and the Man there were a number of class struggles taking place in Britain as a new wave of socialist ideology was taking hold. Up until this point, workers in Britain were often paid low wages and offered little security as their country became even further industrialized. In response there were several workers movements that rose up across the nation and this drew the attention of artists and writers such as Shaw. Issues of class struggle were coming to the forefront of both political and debates in Europe and Shaw began working with the socialist cause. His feelings that the British workers were not advocating their interests enough and that the political structure in England was making it impossible for them to have any success led him to speak out publicly, often at the risk of some of his personal friendships. In addition to writing plays, Shaw became a full-time advocate of socialism and joined the Fabian Society where he wrote a number of socialist documents. He also traveled to Russia, met with Stalin, and came home to declare how wonderfully he believed socialism was going in that country.
In “Arms and the Man” George Bernard Shaw chose to set his place in the midst of a foreign war, in part so that he could offer some commentary about war. The lead female in the play, much like English audiences of the time, is sucked into the idea of the war hero and finds it difficult to think that war is anything except not glamorous. Notions of love and war as well as class are turned upside down and the reader is forced to confront them just as British playgoers of the time would eventually have to face these issues when the First World War finally came around over a decade later. At this time though, war was still a vague enough notion that it could be romanticized and this is part of the criticism George Bernard Shaw offers in the play Arms and the Man. In addition to this is his commentary about class which is the most important in terms of the social context of this play. “Arms and the Man” by George Bernard Shaw occurs during the Serbo-Bulgarian War in 1885. She is supposed to marry one of the heroes of the war who she thinks of in terms of the idealized version of soldiers many British held during this pre-World War I era. The peace of the beginning scenes is interrupted with the arrival of a Swiss soldier in Raina’s bedroom asking for a safe place to hide. Raina offers him refuge and laughs because he does not carry guns or ammunition but chocolate instead. As the play progresses, Raina eventually begins to understand that her betrothed does not fit into the same heroic image she has always had and instead begins to fall in love with the Swiss soldier. By the end of the play “Arms and the Man” by George Bernard Shaw she finally declares her love for the soldier and the story ends happily for nearly everyone. What is missing from this short synopsis is the way that George Bernard Shaw addresses the important social issue of class during this time. Throughout “Arms and the Man” George Bernard Shaw he constantly but with subtlety makes a number of important statements about his political and social beliefs about society and class that make reference to the social context of this play—Victorian England.
Throughout “Arms and the Man” by George Bernard Shaw, slight variances are used in the speech of the characters to indicate class distinctions. It is clear that Shaw, a noted socialist, has a great deal of concern about class issues and instead of making the reader keenly aware of these notions through any direct mention, he uses their dialogue as well as cues within the setting to reveal these elements. “Despite the prominence of debate and speechmaking in his plays, one sometimes forgets that before Shaw-the-playwright came Shaw-the-debater and public speaker. All were platform spellbinders” (Dukore 385). Part of the reason it is so easy to forget that there a number of encoded social messages within the text is because is remarkably deft at conveying injustices and problems through characterization and language. His writing style is thus very critical of the Victorian-era society yet instead of doing this overtly, he relies on gestures, dialogue, and setting to set the stage for the debate. His “public speaking” would, in this sense be limited to the voices of his characters who come from variable class backgrounds and have a system of language that is suitable for their class. Only through this mode can Shaw open a platform for class debates.
At the very beginning of “Arms and the Man” by George Bernard Shaw, the reader is already cued into the class differences that will plague the text until the end. For instance, the introduction of Raina in “Arms and the Man” by George Bernard Shaw is not one that values her inner life, but those of outer appearances, something that is of great importance to her and her family. Without dialogue, she is introduced in one of the important quotes from Arms and the Man by George Bernard Shaw, “On the balcony, a young lady, intensely conscious of the romantic beauty of the night, and of the fact that her own youth and beauty is a part of it, is on the balcony, gazing at the snowy Balkans. She is covered by a long mantle of furs, worth, on a moderate estimate, about three times the furniture of the room” (Shaw 4). Here, it is not important who she is or what she thinks about her class position, but rather it is made clear that she is within an upper class and strives to maintain the outward appearances through her luxurious clothing while the representative items of her “inner life” (in this case her bedroom) are shoddy and unremarkable. Without being told the first thing about this character’s thoughts, it is clear that reader should be immediately attentive to class distinctions through outward appearances. It should also be noted that this setting is beautiful, but we are not expected to focus on the beauty in a traditional way, but rather to pay attention to the social statement—that there is a woman who obviously pays more for her clothes than the upkeep of her living quarters. In the mind of one critic, “The world, as he [Shaw] looks out upon it, is a painful spectacle to his eyes. Pity and indignation move him. He is not sentimental, as some writers are, but the facts grind his soul… in a word, art has an end beyond itself; and the object of Shaw’s art in particular is to make men think, to make them uncomfortable, to convict them of sin” (Salter 446). This is an especially succinct observation in this scene since there is opportunity for sentimentality and romanticism (since she is framed by a lovely setting) but this is not enough for Shaw; he must shift the object of the reader’s gaze away from physical beauty to the darker world of class and character.
Descriptions go beyond setting as well in “Arms and the Man” by George Bernard Shaw. The class of characters is not only revealed and critiqued by the setting itself, but by the narrated actions and stage directions for particular characters. For instance, consider the graceful language and the almost fairy-tale nature of the “dance” of Raina and her fiancée as they simply sit down for dinner. The narrator states in one of the important quotes from “Arms and the Man” by George Bernard Shaw, “Sergius leads Raina forward with splendid gallantry, as if she were a queen. When they come to the table, she turns to him with a bend of the head; he bows; and thus they separate, he coming to his place, and she going behind her father’s chair” (25). This is a very detailed and complex routine these characters act out and is representative of the codified ideals of chivalric behavior typically associated with the elite. This stands in sharp constant to the plodding nature of the exchanges between Nicola and Louka, whose settings and stage directions are not filled with the same dreamy interludes. While Sergius and Raina literally appear to dance in the aforementioned scene, the lower class scenes of the two servants are much less stunning, the narrator only stating where they are in physical space and their language being stunted and free from the dramatic connotations and Byron-like feel of the upper class characters.
This same shift in possibilities, from the potential sentimentality to the social critique, is apparent in terms of language as well as setting descriptions. According to one scholar, “Characters whose impulses are conventional or traditional will use language reflecting their mechanical responses and will be satirized accordingly, while characters who posses a Shavian vitality will express that spontaneity through a freedom not only from moral and ethical formulas but from verbal convention as well” (Weintraub 215). This is apparent when contrasting two particular classes represented in the play. First of all, it should be noted that those of the lower class, especially the solider who enters Raina’s room and the servant girl Nicola are all exciting and interesting characters. They posses the “Shavian vitality” and their language is free from the ornament and needless over-romanticized talk of the upper classes. Consider, as a comparison, the meaning that is compressed, while remaining vital when Louka scolds her servant friend, saying with “searching scorn” no less, “You have the soul of a servant, Nicola” (31). Some of the most powerful emotion in the text is present in these short but potent thesis statements. Another example of this would be when the solider tells Raina, “I’ve no ammunition. What use are cartridges in battle? I always carry chocolate instead; and I finished the last cake of that yesterday” (14). In many ways, it seems as though these characters with clipped but highly powerful statements are much like Shaw. They are making massive overarching statements about their world without seeming to do it, as if any implied social critique might have been incidental. These short bursts of meaning for much farther to reveal genuine sentiment than Raina’s long winded proclamations of love when she confesses, breathlessly and dramatically, Well, it came into my head just as he was holding me in his arms and looking into my eyes, that perhaps we only had our heroic idea because we are so find of reading Byron and Pushkin, and because we were so delighted with the opera that season at Bucharest. Real life is so seldom like that—indeed never, as far as I knew it then” (Shaw 10). While at the end she makes a powerful statement, she is too caught up in the class-driven notions of how a lady should speak to be able to make a direct and succinct statement that has the gravity of the aforementioned quotes from the lower class characters.
In sum, Shaw is not overt in his social critiques in this play. His style requires that the reader interpret not only the varied language of his characters, but of the deeper meanings behind the settings and speech. While a particular scene’s description might seem, on first glance, to offer a beautiful setting or something simple, underneath these images are deeper layers of meaning that are geared towards society. In terms of dialogue and Arms and the Man, Shaw writes his characters as complete individuals whose class and deep thoughts lay masked behind relatively simple-sounding speeches. The ultimate effect of this writing style is that the reader becomes implicated in class debates (as well as other equally prominent debates about the nature of war as well) and is left with a moving story as well as something more to consider. In more broad terms, the play, Arms and the Man by George Bernard Shaw reflects some of the intense class conflicts of the day and addresses several of Shaw’s ideas about society and politics as well.
Works Cited
Dukore. “Agitations: Letters to the Press 1875-1950.” Theatre Journal 38.3 (1986): 385
Salter. “Mr. Bernard Shaw as a Social Critic.” International Journal of Ethics 18.4 (1908): 446
Shaw, George Bernard. Arms and the Man. New York; Dover: (1994).
Peters, Sally. Bernard Shaw: The Ascent of the Superman. Yale University Press (1996).
Weintraub. “Language and Laughter: Comic Diction in the Plays of Bernard Shaw.” Modern Philology68.2 (1970): 21.
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