Terrorism is very difficult to define, but still harder to define, perhaps, are the motivations that prompt individuals and groups to commit acts of terrorism. Furthermore, although the physical consequences of terrorism are often painfully visible, the effects that terrorism inflicts upon world politics and international relations are more difficult to discern and still more challenging to understand. In my opinion, Huntington’s (1998) The Clash of Civilizations and Esposito’s (2003) Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islamdo the best job of defining terrorism and making convincing arguments that explain the reality of terrorism and the global war on terrorism. Each of the authors offers a unique yet complementary perspective. While focuses on macro-level issues that explain why terrorism is on the rise, Esposito takes a more micro-level perspective, examining why terrorism has become a prominent feature in Islamic cultures in recent years. Considered together, Huntington’s and Esposito’s books expand the reader’s understanding about the motivations prompting terrorist aggression, and in doing so, allude to strategies Western countries, especially the United States, can and should take to stem terrorist acts and their negative consequences.
As this quasi summary of The Clash of Civilizations, by Huntington (1998) explains that the greatest threats of terrorist violence are emerging from cultures in which dogmatic religious ideas are held strongly and pervasively throughout the members of the culture. Although much of popular media focuses on Islamist violence, Huntington (1998) contends that terrorism is just as likely to be spawned in a variety of other societies where emotional religiosity and beliefs rooted in literal interpretations of scriptural texts are prevalent characteristics. Although Huntington argues that “global politics is both multipolar and multicivilizational” (p. 20), he notes that Western countries, especially the United States, have traditionally insisted on casting any political foes, whether perceived or actual, into a binary and oppositional relationship that negates the complexities of both countries and their constituent cultures.
Despite the mountain of evidence suggesting that polarized relationships are almost always ineffective, creating greater animosity and violent fervor than existed before, it is clear that the United States continues to deny the kind of argument Huntington has laid out in The Clash of Civilizations. In fact, after the terrorist attacks of September, 2001, the United States has only increased and intensified its efforts to cast societies perceived to be threatening into the role of antagonist. It is far more efficient, and effective within the popular imagination, to avoid a nuanced consideration of multiple cultures in conflict for numerous and complex reasons. Instead, the United States turns every concern into a polarized, oppositional paradigm; the Middle East just happens to be the latest in a long, historical string of the “Other” cast as antagonist. Huntington views this defensive posture as a dangerous policy and practice. He suggests that the “universalist pretensions” of the United States do indeed seem to be provoking the rest of the world’s disdain and, increasingly, its wrath, particularly in fundamentalist communities, which are “obsessed with the inferiority of their power” and are seeking recognition and retribution through terrorist activity (p. 217). Because they lack legitimate agency, authority, and credibility, these groups often demonstrate their power through violent attacks.
Esposito (2003) adds depth to Huntington’s argument by specifically examining how the West in general, and the United States in particular, misunderstands Muslims, a group often characterized as religiously dogmatic. Esposito (2003) challenges the popularly held perception that Muslims are one-dimensional, noting that there is as much diversity within Muslim communities as there is between them. In fact, Esposito argues, much as Huntington does, that our reductive and overly facile characterizations of other cultures prevents us from truly understanding them, only increasing their marginalization, frustration, and propensity to act out and display aggression against the West. One concrete example Esposito offers is the way in which the United States has come to define jihad, which actually means “struggle.” Jihad has been defined by the West as a holy war, and has overtones of hostile, anti-Western aggression. While jihad has, in fact, been appropriated in this manner by a certain segment of Islamist fundamentalists—and a segment that is not negligible in size—the simplistic approach to understanding other cultures only fosters their desire to gain power and assert their identity in the world.
What Huntington and Esposito teach, then, is that when we cast others into the role of antagonist, we fail to grasp their true complexity. We refuse to acknowledge the reasons why dogmatic belief and action are attractive and effective for them. We prevent them from obtaining legitimate agency and authority, forcing them into a position where they can only attain power through aggressive and often deadly means. The inevitable result is that these groups increase their hostile acts. Meanwhile, we wonder why terrorism is on the rise and our own policies and practices prevent us from seeing that we are actually fostering the conditions in which terrorism is made possible. This, in effect, is what has happened with Islamist fundamentalists who engage in terrorist aggression. Islamist terrorism is a revolutionary force that has changed world politics dramatically. Cognizant that the West will never invest them with legitimacy, Islamist terrorists have taken matters into their own hands and have determined to assert their power. Huntington and Esposito argue that this outcome should not be surprising. While terrorists must take responsibility for their own acts, Western countries must recognize how they foster the marginalization that prompts terrorism.
References
Esposito, J. (2003). Unholy war: Terror in the name of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press.
Huntington, S.E. (1998). The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order. New York: Simon & Schuster.
