The History of Buddhism in Mongolia Part IV: Contemporary Mongolian Buddhism

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As is the case with all countries, Mongolia is affected by the intensified movement of globalization. Critics of the contemporary Mongolian political system rail against the fact that Mongolian leaders have adopted “Western forms of government” (Kaplonski 17). These critics, usually nationalists, contend that “The problem with Mongolia… is precisely that the government has chosen to look to countries like America or Germany for models on which to base their laws” (Kaplonski 17). For these critics, Buddhism is a valuable vehicle through which Mongols can “save” their “’traditional’ precepts and, in their estimation, the very country” (Kaplonski 17). Yet Buddhists themselves have begun to look beyond Mongolia’s borders to explore alternative expressions of Buddhist belief and practice (Tefft 11). This fact portends potential future political problems Mongolia, as its large and increasingly powerful neighbor to the south, China, is exerting greater effort to remain vigilant about the growing popularity of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia (Tefft 11). Recall also the comments made by a member of Parliament and cited by Fagan (34) regarding religious tolerance. Because of its reputation for religious freedom, Fagan describes Mongolia as an “oasis” of religious freedom and tolerance, and its eight centuries’ long legacy of freedom and tolerance is attractive for refugees and asylees seeking religious liberty (34).

Actual Mongolian Buddhist Practice

Twenty-first century Buddhism in Mongolia is much like 13^th century Buddhism in Mongolia, and the Buddhism that spanned the entire course of history between these distant centuries (Atwood 115). Buddhism retains its shamanistic elements, such as the fire-ritual borrowed from the Mazdeans of Iran and reinterpreted to fit local norms and needs (Atwood 115), to identify just one of the many ways in which contemporary Buddhism in Mongolia remains eclectic and integrative (Atwood 115). As Atwood explains, it is difficult, if not impossible, to capture Mongolian Buddhism in a simple definition because of the variety of practices and rituals enacted differently from one region to another (135). Even within geographic pockets where Buddhism is practiced, Atwood warns against assuming that there is an agreed-upon approach to being Buddhist, as there is in other Buddhist countries and communities that share a set of group practices, beliefs and rituals (135). Mongolian Buddhism is distinct because it is influenced by so many different spiritual, political, social, and geographical variables that are entirely unique to Mongolia.

Conclusion

To study the history of Mongolia is to study the history of one aspect of Buddhism and more generally speaking, the history of a people influenced from heavily localized as well as distinctly multicultural historical experiences. Having been brought from the rest of the Asian world to Mongolia by warrior-leader Chinggis Khan, Buddhism was used as a political, social, and cultural instrument as much as it was as a religious practice. Despite the number of centuries that have elapsed since the impressive rule of Chinggis Khan, and the many political changes that Mongolia has experienced as a sovereign subject of its powerful northern and southern neighbors, Russia and China, many of the ways in which Mongolian Buddhism is used remain evident in and important to Mongolian culture in this century. Interestingly, it is still a product of its capacity for extreme internal isolation (geographically, socially, politically, and otherwise) as well as perfect example of a “global” religion with an outward focus. Rather than approaching an understanding of Mongolian Buddhism by trying to define a set of particular practices, as one might do in approaching Tibetan Buddhism, for example, it is more useful and interesting to approach an understanding of Mongolian Buddhism by examining how it has been used not just as a religious experience and practice, but as a means of connection, communication, definition, and alliance building with other countries in the Eursian region. Like other dominant world religions, the Buddhism of Mongolia has distinct overtones that reflect its perception of and reaction to the rest of the world; Western and otherwise.

Buddhism in this region has an incredibly rich history and set of traditions, all of which have developed over the years. These traditions and sets of beliefs have been (and still are, for that matter) impacted significantly by the geographical features of Mongolia. Despite the country’s vast borders, however, modernity is bringing changes in the way the religion is practiced and viewed. In many ways, it is becoming part of a global religious community, just as other dominant world religions are. With the advent of globalization, it will be interesting to see how Mongolian Buddhism continues to be appropriated, both by Mongolian Buddhists themselves, and by external stakeholders who view opportunities to build relationships in this region. Given the trajectory of Mongolian Buddhism over history, it is likely that this pattern will continue.

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Works Cited

Amitai, Reuven, and Michal Birai. Mongols, Turks, and Others: Eurasian Nomads and the Sedentary World. Boston: Brill Leiden, 2005.

Atwood, Christopher P. “Buddhism and Popular Ritual in Mongolian Ritual: A Re-Examination of the Fire Cult.” In History of Religions. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1996.

Central Intelligence Agency. “Mongolia.” The World Factbook. April 17, 2007. Retrieved on May 1, 2007 from https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mg.html.

Christianity Today. “Churches Planted in Mongolia.”

Elverskog, Johan. “Two Buddhisms in Contemporary Mongolia.” Contemporary Buddhism. 7.1 (2006): 29-46.

Fagan, Geraldine. “Mongolia: Religious Freedom Oasis?” Religion in Eastern Europe.  23.6 (2003): 33-40.

Kaplonski, Christopher. Truth, History, and Politics in Mongolia: The Memory of Heroes New York: Routledge, 2004.

Kos’Min, V.K. “Mongolian Buddhism’s Influence on the Formation and Development of Burkhanism in Altai.” Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia. 45.3 (2006): 43-72.

Narangoa, Li. “Japanese Imperialism and Mongolian Buddhism: 1932-1945.” Critical Asian Studies 35.4 (2003): 491-514.

Onon, Urgunge. The Secret History of the Mongols: The Life and Times of Chinggis Khan. Richmond, England; Curzon, 2001.

Tefft, Sheila. “Revival of Tibet-Style Buddhism Worries China.” The Christian Science Monitor.88.216 (1996): 11.

University of Pennsylvania. “Mongolian Political History in the 20^th Century.” Undated. Retrieved on April 30, 2007 from EBSCO host.

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